Advocates gather at Supreme Court ahead of asylum case

Bradley Rowen Liu, 11, wonders what he will do with himself once Indonesia's social media ban for under-16s enters into force on Saturday. As things stand, he spends most of his free time on TikTok.

The primary schooler is one of about 70 million children the government is hoping to shield from the threats of cyberbullying, pornography and internet addiction.

Several countries have proposed teen social media bans since Australia's landmark move in December to stop users under 16 from holding accounts on many popular platforms.

But Indonesia is among the first to act as concerns grow over the impact of such apps on kids' mental and physical wellbeing.

YouTube, TikTok, Facebook, Instagram, Threads, X, Bigo Live and Roblox -- deemed "high-risk" platforms by authorities in the Southeast Asian nation -- will from Saturday start deactivating underage accounts.

Liu, who says he can easily spend five hours a day on TikTok at weekends, told AFP he worries the ban will leave him driftless.

"Maybe I'll do some other activities," he shrugged, without much conviction.

"But I think I'm going to ask my dad or my mom to help me access" the video-sharing app, the boy said after class at a private academy in Jakarta where he learns computer coding.

- Onus on platforms -

"Parents no longer have to fight alone against the giants of the algorithm," communications minister Meutya Hafid said when she announced the ban three weeks ago.

Like in Australia, the Indonesian rules place the onus on platforms to regulate teen access.

Non-compliance of the ban, which will be phased in over time, will put defaulters at risk of a fine or even a suspension.

Indonesia has not said how it plans to monitor implementation, and the communications ministry did not respond to AFP's requests for comment.

It is part of a global reckoning over the potential harms of social media for minors.

A Los Angeles jury on Wednesday found Meta and YouTube liable for harming a young woman through the "addictive design" of their platforms, ordering the companies to pay $6 million in damages.

Britain's upper house of parliament voted this week in favour of banning children from social media, piling pressure on the government to follow suit.

- 'Brain rot' -

Though annoyed about the looming interdiction, Liu concedes even he is worried about screen addiction.

"Sometimes I have to remember to keep track of time... Like when it's a holiday, I kind of get really attached to my phone."

A fellow pupil, 15-year-old Maximillian, said he spends too much time on social media, leaving him feeling "unproductive". He supports the ban.

Some want the government to go even further.

Randi Putra Chaniago, who teaches at the academy, said social media -- including the surreal AI-generated clips known as brain rot -- was a distraction in class.

"It's concerning, really, because some of this 'brain rot' content is weird and can disturb children's way of thinking," he said.

The 23-year-old, who uses YouTube to teach some classes, said the ban would challenge teachers to find better educational tools.

The P2G Indonesian Teachers' Association, for its part, wants the government to ban cellphones in classrooms altogether.

- 'Unhealthy use' -

YouTube parent company Google said the two platforms have already introduced features allowing parents to limit scrolling time.

It said AI tech will be launched in Indonesia by next year to determine a user's age.

But "blanket account restrictions... will deprive young people accessing YouTube of the protections, parental controls, and security features we've integrated into supervised accounts", it argued in a statement.

TikTok said it would work with the government to ensure "teens can continue to access safe online spaces".

And gaming platform Roblox pledged to introduce "additional controls" for minors.

Karina Adistiana, an Indonesian educational psychologist, told AFP several studies have shown that intensive social media use is harmful for young people.

"Intensive in the sense that social media becomes the child's main world. That's where the danger lies," she said.

"Depression, difficulty concentrating, trouble sleeping, anxiety, constantly wanting to check notifications -- those are clearly signs of unhealthy use in children."

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Here are the latest developments in the Middle East war:

- Kuwait's main port hit -

Kuwait's main commercial port was damaged in a drone attack at dawn.

The Shuwaikh port was targeted "by enemy drones, preliminary reports revealed material damage but no human casualties", the Kuwait port authority said in a statement on X.

- Iran warning to US soldiers -

Iran's military has warned that hotels housing US soldiers across the region would be targets.

"When all the Americans (forces) go into a hotel, then from our perspective that hotel becomes American," armed forces spokesman Abolfazl Shekarchi told state television.

- UN Security Council meeting -

The UN Security Council will hold closed-door consultations on Friday to discuss strikes on Iran at Moscow's request, Russian state media reported.

"The Russian Federation has requested closed-door consultations with the UN Security Council due to the ongoing strikes on civilian infrastructure in Iran, including educational and healthcare facilities," said Evgeny Uspensky, spokesman for Russia's envoy to the United Nations, according to state news agency TASS.

- Japan to boost coal-fired power -

Japan's government plans to temporarily lift restrictions on coal-fired power plants as it seeks to ease an energy crunch caused by the Middle East war, officials said.

Power suppliers have previously been required to keep the operating rate of coal-fired thermal power stations that emit large amounts of carbon dioxide at or below 50 percent.

But the government now intends to allow the full operation of older, less efficient coal-fired plants, for a year from the new fiscal year starting April.

- India slashes fuel taxes -

India has reduced taxes on diesel and petrol by 10 rupees ($0.11) a litre.

The South Asian nation, one of the world's largest crude oil importers, relies on foreign suppliers for more than 85 percent of its oil needs -- with Russia being the biggest supplier.  

- Israeli strikes on Beirut -

Lebanese media reported an Israeli strike hit Beirut's southern suburbs early Friday, as AFP correspondents heard several explosions from the Hezbollah stronghold that Israel has repeatedly struck since war erupted this month.

Israel has previously issued sweeping evacuation warnings for the area, but provided no specific warning in advance of the strike on Tahouitet al-Ghadir.

- Saudi Arabia intercepts drones -

The Saudi defence ministry said it had "intercepted and destroyed" four drones over the kingdom's east.

- Rubio to join G7 meeting -

US Secretary of State Marco Rubio landed in France to join a meeting of G7 foreign ministers on Friday, an AFP correspondent said.

Rubio, who skipped the first day of the talks outside Paris, said before departing that it was in the "interest" of all G7 nations to push for the reopening of the Strait of Hormuz.

- Guards claim missile, drone attacks -

Iran's Revolutionary Guards said they had carried out missile and drone strikes on Thursday targeting sites in Israel and military facilities in the Gulf used by US forces.

A maintenance facility for US air defence system Patriot was targeted in Bahrain, the Guards said in a statement carried by Iranian news agencies.

- Israel strike Tehran -

Israel's military said its forces carried out "a wide-scale wave of strikes targeting infrastructure of the Iranian terror regime in the heart of Tehran" early Friday.

- Trump pushes back deadline -

US President Donald Trump said he would not yet strike Iranian power plants as previously threatened after a request from Tehran, adding that talks with the Islamic republic were "going very well."

"I am pausing the period of Energy Plant destruction by 10 Days to Monday, April 6, 2026, at 8 P.M., Eastern Time," Trump said on his Truth Social platform.

"Talks are ongoing and, despite erroneous statements to the contrary by the Fake News Media, and others, they are going very well."

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Small enough to fit in the palm of your hand, newly hatched sea turtles emerged on a Gabonese beach to embark on the treacherous 10-metre (33-foot) scramble across the sand to the ocean. 

"The survival rate for turtles is one in 1,000," Francois Boussamba, a Gabonese turtle expert and head of the NGO Aventures Sans Frontieres (Adventures Without Borders), told AFP, scouring for nests. 

Conservationists from NGOs and the national parks agency patrol Gabon's beaches daily during the nesting season to protect the turtles' nests.

Those under threat are moved to a hatchery, a fenced enclosure near the sea, where the eggs are kept safe until they are ready to hatch.

On Pongara National Park's white sandy beaches, about 30 minutes by boat from the capital Libreville, conditions are optimal for nesting: wild coastline, a favourable equatorial climate and an open ocean beach with gentle slopes, ideal for the females.

But dangers lurk. Nests are threatened by coastal erosion due to encroaching sea levels, or myriad predators such as crabs and birds that prevent the eggs from reaching their 60-day incubation period, Boussamba said.

"The chances of survival are tiny," he said.

- Muscle up -

In Libreville, every morning around 7:00 am, volunteers from the Project Turtles Tahiti Gabon association crisscross the beach and check the nests in the hatchery.

After one has hatched, the baby turtles have to be moved so they can reach the sea -- but they are never put straight into the water.

"They need to build up their muscles so they can swim in the ocean," volunteer Clemence said.

Four species of turtles -- green, olive ridley, hawksbill and leatherback -- come to nest along Gabon's 900 kilometres (560 miles) of coastline from October to April.

It has the highest nesting density on the African continent, according to the US-based NGO Wildlife Conservation Society.

Gabon is the world's leading nesting site for the leatherback turtle, the largest of the species and listed as threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). 

In addition to predators, sea turtles are also threatened by human activities, from plastic pollution to industrial fishing and poachers. 

By watching over the eggs, the rangers in Pongara help ensure "the survival of this species", Edouard Moussavou, Pongara park's deputy director, said. 

- Unpaid wages -

Since 2013, Gabon's conservation efforts had received funding from the United States, notably through the US Fish and Wildlife Service, an agency responsible for biodiversity. 

"If there are turtles, it means our ecosystem is sound and healthy," Boussamba said. 

But since the suspension of grants by the administration of US President Donald Trump, "turtle monitoring activities have stopped or slowed down drastically", Moussavou said.

"There will be fewer staff, less data, and that really creates difficulties for us," he said.

Additionally, there have been delays in paying the staff of the National Agency for National Parks (ANPN), which manages the country's 13 parks, according to Sosthene Ndong Engonga, secretary-general of the National Union of Gabonese Ecoguards.

The around 580 eco-rangers regularly go unpaid.

"Even when there is money, we have to make a big fuss to get our salaries," he said, adding he battled with the treasury last month for back pay. 

The eco-rangers, who are crucial for the conservation of Gabon's biodiversity, face having "to give everything up", Engonga warned. "We have expenses we can no longer cover," he said.

On Pongara beach, 40-year-old Alain Banguiya carries out night patrols, hoping to see a leatherback turtle emerge from the water to lay her eggs in the sand. 

An eco-ranger since 2015, he has not been paid for two months but says that giving up is out of the question. 

"We have a duty to fight to the end, to keep our spirits up," he said. "Despite the obstacles, we stay the course: conservation."

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Hungarian leader Viktor Orban's officially declared wealth is fairly modest: some savings and a jointly owned villa in Budapest.

But voters in what Transparency International deems the EU's most corrupt country believe otherwise.

And they may make Orban pay in a general election on April 12 that could spell an end to his 16-year rule.

The wealth amassed by Orban's inner circle is fuelling the increasingly palpable frustration of a population grappling with sluggish growth, high inflation and worsening public services.

"The government's communication machine worked well as long as our economic situation remained relatively good," Zoltan Ranschburg, a political analyst at the Republikon think tank, told AFP.

But it has not been good for years, he added.

"It's our money, not theirs. But they are spending it as if they were the sole owners," Gabor Szebenyi, an 81‑year‑old retired history teacher told AFP at an opposition rally.

He denounced what he called "feudalism" that has taken root in the Central European country of nearly 10 million people.

Independent lawmaker Akos Hadhazy, one of Hungary's leading anti‑corruption crusaders, said graft has drained the equivalent of 2.84 billion euros ($3.27 billion) from state coffers every year since 2016.

- 'The frontman' -

"These are not isolated cases -- this is simply the way the system is functioning," Hadhazy told AFP.

While Orban claims to live modestly, several members of his family have grown spectacularly rich since his return to power in 2010.

His father Gyozo Orban, who is 85, owns several building material companies as well as the historic Hatvanpuszta estate he had rebuilt into a luxurious manor worth hundreds of millions of dollars.

Protected by high walls, the sprawling domain close to the premier's home village has two swimming pools and its own wildlife park, as well as extensive outbuildings, according to drone footage published by independent media.

"In reality, the father is merely Viktor Orban's frontman," Hadhazy said.

Orban's son-in-law Istvan Tiborcz has become one of Hungary's most influential entrepreneurs through public lighting contracts won by his former company Elios. The deals were partly financed by the EU -- until the EU anti-fraud office OLAF found serious irregularities.

Tiborcz has since switched to real estate and tourism.

Orban's childhood friend Lorinc Meszaros, a former plumber, has become Hungary's wealthiest man worth $4.8 billion according to Forbes magazine, with an empire of construction, energy, banking and media firms thriving on public contracts.

– Frozen EU funds –

"On paper there is competition (for public contracts), but in fact the winner is always known in advance," a construction contractor told AFP on condition of anonymity at a site near Budapest.

Working in the sector for three decades, the man said public tenders are often decided in advance.

"Those at the bottom of the chain do the work and get paid last -- sometimes months later," he said, adding he was ready to throw in the towel and sell his machinery.

"I'm so angry," he said, adding that while those in power lead "luxurious lives" and travel by private jets, small businesses "are struggling to survive".

The anti-corruption watchdog Transparency International has labelled Hungary as the EU's most corrupt country alongside Bulgaria in its Corruption Perceptions Index.

It highlighted systemic risks in public procurement and limited competition for the largest contracts which make up five percent of Hungary's GDP.

The government rejected the ranking and insists Hungarian procurement rules comply with EU standards.

But the EU has frozen 19 billion euros ($22 billion) in funds destined for Hungary over persistent concerns about corruption and respect for the rule of law.

Opposition leader Peter Magyar, Orban's top rival in the upcoming vote, has pledged to recover the funds if elected and to investigate how the current leaders and their families have grown so rich.

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The Mexican navy said Thursday that it was searching for two boats transporting humanitarian aid for Cuba with nine crew of different nationalities on board.

The vessels set sail last Friday from Isla Mujeres in Mexico's southeastern state of Quintana Roo and were due to arrive in Havana on Tuesday or Wednesday this week, the navy said in a statement.

It said that there had been neither "communication nor confirmation of their arrival" in Cuba and that it has alerted naval commanders in the region and its search and rescue stations.

Since last week, activists from several countries have left Mexican ports on vessels loaded with food and other supplies for the communist-led island, which faces a humanitarian crisis in the face of a US-imposed fuel embargo.

The navy did not specify the identities or nationalities of the crew members on the missing boats but said it was maintaining communication with rescue agencies in Poland, France, Cuba and the United States.

The navy is also in contact "with the diplomatic missions of the crew members' countries of origin" to cooperate and exchange information in real time, the statement said.

The navy said it was using aircraft to search the route between Isla Mujeres and Havana.

It appealed to seafarers and maritime authorities in the Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico to report any information or sightings of the missing vessels to the nearest naval authority. 

US President Donald Trump imposed a de facto oil blockade on Cuba in January after the US ouster of Venezuelan leader Nicolas Maduro, whose government had been its principal source Cuba's fuel supplies.

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Germany is considering Australia's "Ghost Bat" robot fighter as it looks to select a combat drone to modernise its air force, defence minister Boris Pistorius said Friday.

Germany has said it wants to field hundreds of unmanned fighter jets by 2029, and will make a decision soon as it considers a range of German, European, and US projects developing so-called "collaborative combat aircraft".

Australia has said it will integrate the Ghost Bat, jointly developed by Boeing Australia and the Royal Australian Air Force, into its military after a successful weapons test last year.

After inspecting the Ghost Bat in Queensland on Friday, Pistorius told reporters it was a "serious competitor" and Germany will "make a decision as soon as possible".

Australian sources said Canberra would consider striking a deal to transfer the technology to Germany to allow the Ghost Bat to be manufactured in Europe.

German company Rheinmetall makes troop carriers in Brisbane under a similar arrangement.

Ghost Bat is not subject to strict US defence export controls that other projects involving US partners must navigate to sell to foreign customers, analysts said.

Australia's vast coastline and small population have spurred its focus on developing robot submarines and fighter jets, with a wary eye on China's naval build-up in the Indo-Pacific.

Australian Strategic Policy Institute defence analyst Malcolm Davis said the Ghost Bat was designed to work alongside a crewed jet and return to base -- unlike the cheap kamikaze drones used by Iran, and in the Ukraine conflict.

"This is a new type of approach to air power where you have a crewed fighter giving directions to four or five Ghost Bats flying in formation with it," he said.

"It is a robot fighter that is told to go off and patrol that target, shoot that down."

Uncrewed aircraft would allow Australia to make its air force larger and more powerful at lower cost, he said.

Pistorius noted the rise of cheaper mass produced drones in the Iran and Ukraine conflicts.

"We can't ignore high-end products as well as low-cost products -- we need both," he said.

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Since the start of the Middle East conflict, Iran has witnessed massive cryptocurrency flows.

Experts say they are being used to circumvent sanctions placed on Iran's Revolutionary Guards as well as a financial safe haven by civilians hit by soaring inflation.

AFP examines how exactly digital currencies are being used in the country.

- Millions of dollars -

In an unusually large movement, more than $10 million worth of cryptocurrencies left Iranian exchange platforms between February 28 -- the first day of Israeli-US airstrikes -- and March 2, according to data analytics firm Chainalysis.

By March 5, nearly one-third of these funds had been transferred to foreign exchanges.

While some of this exodus can be explained by citizens rushing to protect their savings, the sheer size of the sums involved suggests the involvement of "regime actors", Kaitlin Martin of Chainalysis told AFP.

Such action would likely occur out of fear of further sanctions or cyberattacks, according to experts.

In June 2025, at the height of the previous Israel-Iran conflict, leading cryptocurrency platform Nobitex had $90 million stolen by hackers linked to Israel, according to blockchain company TRM Labs.

- Iran implicated -

According to Chainalysis, several digital wallets used during this surge in cryptocurrency activity are directly linked to the Revolutionary Guards.

"Even during these internet outages some outflows are seen, suggesting that some have access to the exchange's cryptoasset holdings even when its website is inaccessible," noted cryptocurrency analysts Elliptic.

The state's grip is massive. Last year, wallets associated with the Guards were funded with more than $3 billion in cryptocurrencies, representing more than half of the country's cryptocurrency flows -- a share that continues to grow according to Chainalysis.

- 'Shadow banking' -

For Iran, largely cut off from the traditional financial system by international sanctions, cryptocurrencies are an alternative channel -- allowing the state to sell embargoed oil or to discreetly finance allied armed groups, such as the Houthi rebels in Yemen according to US authorities.

The Financial Times earlier this year reported that Iran offered ballistic missiles, drones and other advanced weapons systems for sale using cryptocurrencies.

These digital assets contribute to a veritable "shadow banking", Craig Timm of the anti-money laundering organisation ACAMS, told AFP.

Quicker to send and less expensive than a bank transfer, cryptocurrencies are difficult to trace owing also to loopholes in global regulations, he added.

- 'Lifeline' -

The Revolutionary Guards and Iranian central bank favour "stablecoins" -- digital currencies generally pegged to the dollar in a bid to avoid volatility.

But civilians are turning en masse to bitcoin, the world's leading cryptocurrency, which can be withdrawn from platforms and stored in personal wallets, beyond the authorities' reach.

Bitcoin currently trades for more than $68,000.

This strategy was already widely evident during brutally suppressed protests in Iran ahead of the war, according to Chainalysis.

In a country where inflation was already nearing 50 percent before the conflict started, cryptocurrencies are acting as a "lifeline" for the population in the face of the collapse of the national currency, said analyst Martin.

lul-bcp/rl/abs/ami

Nepal's rapper-turned-politician Balendra Shah will be sworn in as the new prime minister on Friday, after issuing his victory message in a rap song, urging unity.

The 35-year-old reformist swept polls this month on a platform of youth-driven political change, six months after a deadly 2025 uprising toppled the government.

At least 77 people were killed in the anti-corruption youth uprising, which began over a brief social media ban but tapped into longstanding fury over economic hardship in the nation of 30 million people.

Shah, better known as Balen, released his first public statement since winning the elections -- hours after he took the oath to become a lawmaker for the first time.

"The strength of unity is my national power," Shah sang in the song, which has racked up nearly three million views since being released on social media and streaming sites on Thursday evening.

Shah had remained silent publicly since his Rastriya Swatantra Party (RSP) won the March 5 election in a landslide, winning a commanding majority of 182 in the 275-seat House of Representatives.

He campaigned alongside RSP president, combative television host Rabi Lamichhane, 51, a former deputy prime minister and interior minister, a fellow lawmaker who retains a pivotal role in power.

Shah will take the oath of office as the Himalayan republic's new prime minister later on Friday.

"My heart is full of courage, my red blood is boiling; my brothers stand with me, this time we will rise," Shah added in his song, over a video of him campaigning for election.

"May my breath not run out, I will run like a leopard," he added.

- 'Bright future' -

Shortly after his rap song was released, the outgoing interim prime minister bid farewell to the nation in a televised broadcast.

Sushila Karki, 73, a former chief justice who had led the caretaker administration for six months, said the country's future lay in the hands of a younger generation.

"I am confident that the new government to be formed under the leadership of the youth will work towards ending corruption in the country, establishing good governance, creating jobs within the country, economic development and social justice," she said.

"I am looking forward to the bright future of this country with full confidence -- where our unity, honesty and the hard work of every citizen will write a new history," she added.

Karki, who had ordered an investigation into the crackdown on protesters, said in her statement Thursday that a report with the findings would be released. She did not give further details.

According to a leaked copy of the report seen by AFP, the commission investigating the events recommended the prosecution of ex-prime minister KP Sharma Oli, who was toppled in the uprising.

Four-time prime minister and Marxist leader Oli, 74, was defeated by Shah in Oli's own constituency. 

At least 19 young people were killed in a crackdown on the first day of protests. No one has been convicted of the killings.

Former interior minister Ramesh Lekhak and ex-police chief Chandra Kuber Khapung should also be investigated and prosecuted, according to the recommendations in the report.

Lekhak bore "overall responsibility for home administration, security agencies, and maintaining law and order", the report said, adding that he and Oli "did not appear to have made any effort on the afternoon... to prevent further human casualties".

The report said it was "not established that there was an order to shoot", but "no effort was made to stop or control the firing and, due to their negligent conduct, even minors lost their lives".

The report said that in 48 of the 63 completed autopsies victims died from bullet wounds, with the majority struck in the chest or head.

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Myanmar's ageing railway stations are bustling with life, crowded with passengers as surging fuel prices due to the Mideast war drive commuters to choose trains over costly planes and cars.

On a journey from the country's largest city Yangon to the capital Naypyidaw AFP journalists sat in air-conditioned carriages full of travellers napping and sharing tea, fried rice and instant noodles.

First class adult train tickets cost 19,000 kyats ($4.50), while the cheapest bus fares for the route now start at 35,000 kyats.

At one point on Thursday the train chugged past a queue of trucks waiting for fuel -- the trains themselves run on diesel, with the state railway company maintaining its own stocks.

People dozed on station benches or sat on luggage on  platforms as they waited for their trains.

Myanmar has been consumed by a civil war since 2021, when a military coup swept aside Aung San Suu Kyi's democratically elected government, sparking armed resistance to junta rule.

Rail travel is not traditionally the most popular mode of transport in the country, and many trains are older and less comfortable, while much of the network was built under British colonial rule. 

But people from rural areas have long relied on affordable railways to journey between cities -- despite occasional attacks by rebel forces targeting trains since 2021.

"The costs are high if we use a car. Also there are not many security checkpoints on the train," said Zeya Ko Ko, 28, a passenger on the Naypyidaw train.

"Buses are also challenging as fuel can run out in some areas due to the fuel crisis."

- First time -

Since the US-Israel war against Iran began nearly a month ago, global fuel prices have soared with international shipping disrupted and fears of shortages, especially in import-reliant Asia.

In Myanmar, prices at the petrol pump have jumped and the junta has instituted fuel-saving measures, including alternate day bans on private vehicles, based on odd- or even-numbered licence plates.

Long queues of cars and motorbikes have formed at petrol stations around the country in the last three weeks.

"We have difficulty travelling for urgent health problems. As private vehicles are being restricted with even-odd numbers, we cannot leave right away when we are sick," said Pearl Hmway, a 53-year-old restaurant owner from Mandalay region, as she waited for for a train home.

A Naypyidaw station official told AFP more people were using trains because of fuel shortages, and extra services had been laid on.

"The government increased the number of scheduled trains because of higher demand," he said, speaking on condition of anonymity as he was not authorised to speak to the media.

Passengers said train tickets were selling out quickly, making booking them online harder.

At Naypyidaw station, 26-year-old monk Zanaka said he was taking a train for the first time in his life.

Bus fares had risen alongside fuel prices, making his journey twice as expensive by road as by rail, he explained.

"That's why we are taking the train on the way back," he said. 

"The train is faster and there's no need to wait in a queue."

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In the dry-season heat of northern Thailand, Hmong villagers zip through forested slopes, blasting tinder with leaf blowers and cutting through brush with machetes, while others scan for smoke on live feeds from their phones.

Across about a dozen villages in the hills of Doi Suthep-Pui National Park, just above the city of Chiang Mai, Indigenous volunteers patrol on foot and clear firebreaks while also deploying drones and treetop cameras -- all to detect blazes early and defend Thailand's second-largest city from wildfire smoke.

"The forest we protect is part of the national park -- the lungs of Chiang Mai," said Mathaphan Phuchakritdapa, who started the firefighting volunteer force a decade ago and is chief of Suthep subdistrict.

"If it burns, the city's lungs are destroyed. That's why we have to take care of it as best we can."

He and his team shifted to tech-driven firefighting after devastating wildfires in 2020 tore through the mountains above the tourism-dependent city.

The blazes lasted weeks in March and April that year, killing at least five people and injuring and displacing residents and wildlife.

The thick smoke from fires then and since has regularly pushed Chiang Mai to the top of global air pollution rankings.

- 'Worst in my life' -

Satellite imagery from the peak of the 2020 crisis showed northern Thailand blanketed by dense clusters of fire hotspots, with nearly 400 recorded in Chiang Mai province in a single day.

"It was the worst fire I've seen in my life," said Mathaphan, adding it took more than 40 days to bring it under control.

The hotter, drier weather caused by climate change creates the conditions for more frequent and destructive fires, and accumulated dry leaves can intensify them and accelerate their spread.

Outbreaks are often linked to human activities such as clearing forest and brush for foraging, hunting and agriculture.

To control air pollution, Chiang Mai authorities announced a strict five-month ban on open burning from the beginning of this year.

Authorities often blame local "hill tribes", while those communities say fires are set by outsiders for commercial purposes.

Data from NASA's fire monitoring service shows far fewer fires in the region in mid-March this year compared to the same period in 2020.

"Both local communities and state agencies are taking the issue more seriously, leading to tighter controls over burning and fire outbreaks," Mathaphan told AFP.

The Hmong, an Indigenous ethnic group originally from the mountains of southern China, have lived on these slopes in northern Thailand since migrating in the mid-20th century.

Volunteer teams roar through the hills on motorbikes, blasting away leaves with blowers and drowning out the buzz of a drone capturing footage of the blaze-prone landscape.

- 'Giving back' -

Mongkol Yingyotmongkolsaen, a 47-year-old Hmong volunteer, returned from the city three years ago and began applying his skills as a photographer to firefighting.

He installed low-cost, internet-connected video cameras high among treetops that share live feeds with villagers who can remotely monitor conditions in real time.

Mongkol also flies standard and infrared drones to monitor for fires from above, track any flames that are spreading and detect heat at night.

This allows teams to identify hotspots earlier, plan safer routes and contain fires more quickly, he said, making their work much easier.

"This is my way of giving back to my community," he added.

Across the subdistrict, each household contributes a volunteer, forming a network of about 270 people managing nearly 1,600 hectares of forest.

Monitoring this vast area requires about 1.5 million baht ($45,000) a year to cover the cost of food, fuel and equipment maintenance.

But the community receives only around 50,000 baht annually in government funding -- an amount the local chief, Mathaphan, said is insufficient.

Still, their volunteer-based approach to fire prevention has become a model for other communities, he said -- helping shift perceptions of Hmong villagers who are often blamed for deforestation and "destructive" farming practices.

"We are not destroying the forest," Mathaphan said. "We are protecting it."

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